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Most services offer digital messaging, while others provide additional services such as webcasts, online chat, telephone chat (VOIP), and message boards. Members can constrain their interactions to the online space, or they can arrange a date to meet in person. A great diversity of online dating services currently exists. Some have a broad membership base of diverse users looking for many different types of relationships. Other sites target highly specific demographics based on features like shared interests, location, religion, or relationship type. Online dating services also differ widely in their revenue streams. Some sites are completely free and depend on advertising for revenue. Others utilize the freemium revenue model, offering free registration and use, with optional, paid, premium services. A 2. 00. 5 study of data collected by the Pew Internet & American Life Project found that individuals are more likely to use an online dating service if they use the Internet for a greater number of tasks, and less likely to use such a service if they are trusting of others. That is, online dating sites use the conceptual framework of a . Under this metaphor, members of a given service can both . The stigma associated with online dating dropped over the years and people view online dating more positively. Further, during this period, the usage among 1. Such sites earn revenue from a mix of advertising and sale of additional options. This model also allows users to switch between free and paying status at will, with sites accepting a variety of online currencies and payment options. Since advertising revenues are modest compared to membership fees, free dating sites require a large number of page views to achieve profitability. However, Sam Yagan describes dating sites as ideal advertising platforms because of the wealth of demographic data made available by users. Over 5. 0% of research participants in a 2. While some sites conduct background checks on members, many do not, resulting in some uncertainty around members' identities. For instance, some profiles may not represent real humans but rather . For example, online dating sites may expose more female members in particular to stalking, fraud, and sexual violence by online predators. A less malicious form of misrepresentation is that members may lie about their height, weight, age, or marital status in an attempt to market or brand themselves in a particular way. However, online dating may also have advantages over conventional offline dating in that it offers unprecedented access to potential partners for singles who otherwise would not have such access. Marriage breakups happened in about 6% of online couples, compared to 7. Mean marital satisfaction scores were 5. Billing. Online subscription- based services can suffer from complaints about billing practices. Some online dating service providers may have fraudulent membership fees or credit card charges. Furthermore, different functionalities may be offered to members who have paid or not paid for subscriptions, resulting in some confusion around who can view or contact whom. Consolidation within the online dating industry has led to different newspapers and magazines now advertising the same website data base under different names. In the UK, for example, Time Out (. A website may have two women for every man, but they may be in the 3. Little is known about the sex ratio controlled for age. When one gets into the specialty niche websites where the primary demographic is male, one typically gets a very unbalanced ratio of male to female or female to male. The distribution of ratings given by men of female attractiveness appears to look like a standard bell curve (normal distribution), while ratings of men given by women is highly skewed with 8. It could also potentially arise from women assessing other profile characteristics besides appearance, like their occupation. Discrimination. Homosexual customers of the popular e. Harmony. com dating website have made many attempts to litigate discriminatory practices. Many sites also require members to specify themselves as . Of those who state a racial preference, 9. Latinas, and 5. 3% exclude Asian women. In contrast, white men are excluded by 7. Latinas, and only 1. Asian women. Similarly, 9. Latinos, and 9. 3% exclude Asian men. Latinos, and 3. 6% of Asian men excluded white women. As soon as a new user set up a free profile, he or she began to receive messages that appeared to be from other members living nearby, expressing romantic interest or a desire to meet. However, users were unable to respond to these messages without upgrading to a paid membership. Membership plans cost from $1. The messages were almost always from fake, computer- generated profiles — 'Virtual Cupids' — created by the defendants, with photos and information designed to closely mimic the profiles of real people. The law requires dating services meeting specific criteria—including having as their primary business to connect U. S. Singapore's government has actively acted as a matchmaker for singles for the past few decades, and thus only 4% of Singaporeans have ever used an online dating service, despite the country's high rate of internet penetration. Mashable. com. Retrieved 2. Hoffman (2. 01. 1). Factors That Lead to Online Dating. Communication Research Reports. Gibbs (2. 01. 0). Journal of Social and Personal Relationships: 4. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 2. 01. 7- 0. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. Retrieved 2. 01. 7- 0. Modern Romance. Penguin Press. ISBN 9. 78- 1- 5. Pew Research Center: Internet, Science & Tech. Retrieved 2. 01. 7- 0. Pew Internet & American Life Project. Retrieved 2. 01. 0- 1. Online daters tend to identify with more liberal social attitudes, compared with all Americans or all internet users. Retrieved 2. 01. 0- 0. New York Times. Retrieved 2. Tech Crunch. Retrieved 2. Venture. Beat. Retrieved 2. Retrieved 2. 01. 3- 0. Computer World. Retrieved 2. Time. 10. 0. time. Retrieved 2. 01. 4- 0. International Journal of Emerging Technologies & Society 9 (2): p 1. Jones, Cher (March 1. Online dating and your brand. Qualitative Health Research. Journal of Computer- Mediated Communication. The New York Times. Bio. Societies. 7 (4): 3. Psychological Science in the Public Interest. Retrieved 2. 01. 5- 1. Retrieved 2. 01. 5- 1. Retrieved 2. 1 November 2. Jon Millward. Retrieved 2. Journal of marriage and the family. ISSN 0. 02. 2- 2. PMC 4. 04. 33. 35 . PMID 2. 49. 10. 47. Wall Street Journal – Eastern Edition. Retrieved 3. 1 October 2. The Sociological Quarterly: 1. Social Forces. 8. ISSN 1. 53. 4- 7. Social Science Research. January 2. 01. 1. Dallas Business Journal. January 2. 01. 1. November 2. 01. 3. Slate Magazine. US News & World Report. Out & About Nashville. TC Attorney. Herpes Dating. Aaron Kelly law firm. The Daily Dot. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. November 2. 01. 3. Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. March 2. 01. 4. US Federal Trade Commission. October 2. 01. 4. Department of Homeland Security. Retrieved 2. 01. 2- 1. Retrieved 2. 01. 4- 0. China. org. cn. Retrieved 2. Retrieved 2. 01. 3- 0. Romance on a Global Stage: Pen Pals, Virtual Ethnography, and . Retrieved 2. 01. 3- 0. Retrieved 9 December 2. Internetdatingconference. Retrieved 2. 01. 4- 0. Radiometric Dating. Science. in Christian Perspective. Radiometric. Christian Perspective. Dr. Wiens. 94. 1 Estates Drive,Los Alamos, NM 8. RCWiens@MSN. Com. Wiens has a Ph. D in Physics, with a minor. Geology. His Ph. D thesis was on isotope ratios in meteorites, including. He was employed at Caltech's Division of Geological. Planetary Sciences at the time of writing the first edition. He is. presently employed in the Space & Atmospheric Sciences Group at the Los. Alamos National Laboratory. First edition 1. 99. Radiometric dating- -the process of determining the age. There are over forty such techniques, each using. It has. become increasingly clear that these radiometric dating techniques agree with. Earth was. created a very long time ago. Further evidence comes from the complete. Many Christians have been led to. Many. are also unaware that Bible- believing Christians are among those actively. This. paper describes in relatively simple terms how a number of the dating techniques. In the. process the paper refutes a number of misconceptions prevalent among Christians. This paper is available on the web via the American Scientific. Affiliation and related sites to promote greater understanding and wisdom on. Christian community. TABLE OF CONTENTSIntroduction. Overview. The Radiometric Clocks. Examples of Dating Methods for Igneous Rocks. Potassium- Argon. Argon- Argon. Rubidium- Strontium. Samarium- Neodymium, Lutetium- Hafnium, and Rhenium- Osmium. Uranium- Lead. The Age of the Earth. Extinct Radionuclides: The Hourglasses that Ran Out. Cosmogenic Radionuclides: Carbon- 1. Beryllium- 1. 0, Chlorine- 3. Radiometric Dating of Geologically Young Samples. Non- Radiogenic Dating Methods for the Past 1. Years. Ice Cores. Varves. Other Annual- Layering Methods. Thermoluminescence. Electron Spin Resonance. Cosmic Ray Exposure Dating. Can We Really Believe the Dating Systems? Doubters Still Try. Apparent Age? Rightly Handling the Word of Truth. Appendix: Common Misconceptions Regarding Radiometric Dating. Techniques. Resources on the Web. Further Reading: Books. Acknowledgements. More About the Author Glossary. Introduction. Arguments over the age of the Earth have sometimes been. Bible as God's word. Even though the. Earth's age is never mentioned in the Bible, it is an issue because those who. Genesis can calculate an. Assuming a strictly literal interpretation of the. Earth would be less than ten thousand years old. Radiometric. dating techniques indicate that the Earth is thousands of times older than. Many Christians accept. Genesis account in less scientifically literal ways. Unfortunately, much of the literature available to Christians has been. The next few pages cover a broad overview of radiometric. The goal is to promote greater. Christian community. Many. people have been led to be skeptical of dating without knowing much about it. God has called us to be . In spite of this, differences still occur within the. A disagreement over the age of the Earth is relatively minor in the. Christianity; it is more important to agree on the Rock of Ages. But because God has also called us to wisdom, this. Overview. Rocks are made up of many individual crystals, and each. Most of the elements in nature are stable and. However, some elements are not completely stable in their natural. Some of the atoms eventually change from one element to another by a. If there are a lot of atoms of the original. The passage of time can be charted. Radiometric dating can be compared to an hourglass. When the. glass is turned over, sand runs from the top to the bottom. Radioactive atoms. You cannot predict exactly when. Once all of the. sand has fallen out of the top, the hourglass will no longer keep time unless it. Similarly, when all the atoms of the radioactive element. Figure 1. The rate of loss of sand from from the. In exponential decay the amount of material decreases by half during. After. two half- lives one- fourth remains, after three half- lives, one- eighth. If it takes a certain. In the next. interval, with only a fourth remaining, only one eighth of the original total. By the time. ten of these intervals, or half- lives, has passed, less than one thousandth of. The. equation for the fraction of parent atoms left is very simple. No deviations. have yet been found from this equation for radioactive decay. Also unlike the hourglass, there is no way to change the rate. If. you shake the hourglass, twirl it, or put it in a rapidly accelerating vehicle. But. the radioactive atoms used in dating techniques have been subjected to heat. Earth or other planets without any significant change in their. If it. has a hole allowing the sand grains to escape out the side instead of going. Similarly. a rock that is to be dated must be sealed against loss or addition of either the. If. it has lost some of the daughter element, it will give an inaccurately young age. For. igneous rocks the event is usually its cooling and hardening from magma or lava. For example carbon has isotopes of weight. C, 1. 3C, 1. 4C). Some Naturally Occurring Radioactive. Isotopes and their half- lives. Radioactive Isotope(Parent)Product(Daughter)Half- Life(Years)Samarium- 1. Neodymium- 1. 43. Rubidium- 8. 7Strontium- 8. Rhenium- 1. 87. Osmium- 1. Lutetium- 1. 76. Hafnium- 1. Thorium- 2. 32. Lead- 2. Uranium- 2. 38. Lead- 2. Potassium- 4. 0Argon- 4. Uranium- 2. 35. Lead- 2. Beryllium- 1. 0Boron- 1. Chlorine- 3. 6Argon- 3. Carbon- 1. 4Nitrogen- 1. Uranium- 2. 34. Thorium- 2. Thorium- 2. 30. Radium- 2. Most half- lives taken from Holden, N. E. 6. 2, 9. 41- 9. Isotopes with. relatively short half- lives are useful for dating correspondingly shorter. Work. on radiometric dating first started shortly after the turn of the 2. However. by now we have had over fifty years to measure and re- measure the half- lives for. Very. precise counting of the decay events or the daughter atoms can be done, so while. For example. recall that only one gram of material contains over 1. Even if only one trillionth of the atoms decay in one year. The uncertainties on the half- lives given in the table are. All of the half- lives are known to better than about two percent. There is no evidence. In fact, as discussed below, they. Dating Methods for Igneous Rocks. Now let's look at how the actual dating methods work. Igneous. rocks are good candidates for dating. Recall that for igneous rocks the event. When the molten. material cools and hardens, the atoms are no longer free to move about. Daughter. atoms that result from radioactive decays occurring after the rock cools are. These atoms are like. Determining the age. First one needs to measure the number of. Then the half- life is used to calculate the time it took to. However, there is one complication. One cannot always assume. It turns out that there are. But in most cases. Most. of the time one can use the different amounts of parent and daughter present in. Each dating mechanism deals with this problem in its own way. Some. types of dating work better in some rocks; others are better in other rocks. Let's examine some of the. Potassium- Argon. Potassium. is an abundant element in the Earth's crust. One isotope, potassium- 4. This is not a problem because. It. is possible to date some rocks by the potassium- calcium method, but this is not. Argon, on the other hand, is a gas. Whenever rock is. Once the. molten material hardens, it begins to trap the new argon produced since the. In this way the potassium- argon clock is clearly. In its simplest form, the geologist simply needs to measure. The. age is given by a relatively simple equation: t = h x ln. This is usually trapped in the form. One percent of the air we breathe. Any extra argon from air bubbles may need to be taken into. This would most likely be the. One must have a. way to determine how much air- argon is in the rock. This is rather easily. The ratio of argon- 4. Thus, if one measures argon- 3. One of the best ways of showing that an age- date is correct. Some. young- Earth proponents recently reported that rocks were dated by the. But the potassium- argon method, with its. The. false radiometric ages of several million years are due to parentless. Note that it would be extremely unlikely for another. Getting agreement between. Although. potassium- argon is one of the simplest dating methods, there are still some. When this does happen. This gas can have a higher. This. is called parentless argon- 4. In these slightly unusual. However. scientists in the mid- 1. Argon- Argon. Even though it. This method uses exactly. In. effect, it is a different way of telling time from the same clock. Instead. of simply comparing the total potassium with the non- air argon in the rock, this. In the argon- argon method the rock is placed near the center. A nuclear reactor emits a. Argon- 3. 9 is not found in nature because. The rock is then heated in a furnace to release both. The. heating is done at incrementally higher temperatures and at each step the ratio. If the argon- 4. 0 is from decay of. On the. other hand, if there is some excess argon- 4. Figure 2 is an example of a good argon- argon date. When. this is done, the plateau in the figure represents an age date based on the. There are occasions when the argon- argon dating method does. This. most often occurs if the rock experienced a high temperature (usually a thousand. Fahrenheit or more) at some point since its formation. An. example of an argon- argon analysis that did not yield an age date is shown in. Figure 3. Notice. This. is also true of a number of other igneous rock dating methods, as we will. Figure 3. Rubidium- Strontium. In. nearly all of the dating methods, except potassium- argon and the associated. Using these methods is a little like trying to. One can think of ways to correct for this in an. One could make a mark on the outside of the glass where the sand. Or if one is clever she or he could examine the. By knowing how long it takes all of the sand to fall, one. Similarly, there are good. Strontium has several other. The ratio of strontium- 8. But when the rock first cools, all parts of.
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